TY  - JOUR
AU  - Schwarz, Michael
AU  - Takhteyev, Yuri
TI  - Half a Century of Public Software Institutions: Open Source as a Solution to Hold-Up Problem
JF  - National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series
VL  - No. 14946
PY  - 2009
Y2  - May 2009
DO  - 10.3386/w14946
UR  - http://www.nber.org/papers/w14946
L1  - http://www.nber.org/papers/w14946.pdf
N1  - Author contact info:
Michael Schwarz
Microsoft
2140 Shattuck Ave 
Berkeley, CA 94704
Tel: (510)8593612
Fax: (510)7042401
E-Mail: mschwarz@microsoft.com

Yuri Takhteyev
UC Berkeley
102 South Hall
Berkeley CA 94720-4600
E-Mail: yuri@sims.berkeley.edu
AB  - We argue that the intrinsic inefficiency of proprietary software has historically created a space for alternative institutions that provide software as a public good. We discuss several sources of such inefficiency, focusing on one that has not been described in the literature: the underinvestment due to fear of holdup. An inefficient holdup occurs when a user of software must make complementary investments, when the return on such investments depends on future cooperation of the software vendor, and when contracting about a future relationship with the software vendor is not feasible. We also consider how the nature of the production function of software makes software cheaper to develop when the code is open to the end users. Our framework explains why open source dominates certain sectors of the software industry (e.g., the top ten programming languages all have an open source implementation), while being almost none existent in some other sectors (none of the top ten computer games are open source). We then use our discussion of efficiency to examine the history of institutions for provision of public software from the early collaborative projects of the 1950s to the modern "open source" software institutions. We look at how such institutions have created a sustainable coalition for provision of software as a public good by organizing diverse individual incentives, both altruistic and profit-seeking, providing open source products of tremendous commercial importance, which have come to dominate certain segments of the software industry.
ER  -