R. Chetty, M. Jackson, T. Kuchler, and J. Stroebel contributed equally to this work. They were the joint principal investigators on this project and designed the study, supervised all analyses, analyzed data, and wrote the paper. R. B. Fluegge, S. Gong, F. Gonzalez, A. Grondin, M. Jacob, D. Johnston, M. Koenen, F. Mudekereza, T. Rutter, N. Thor, W. Townsend, and R. Zhang analyzed data, prepared figures, and provided conceptual contributions to the study. M. Bailey led the collaboration between the external researchers and the Meta Research Team. N. Hendren, E. Laguna-Muggenburg, P. Barbera, M. Bhole, and N. Wernerfelt provided intellectual input and edited drafts of the manuscript. We are grateful to J. Friedman, M. Gentzkow, E. Glaeser, R. Putnam, B. Sacerdote, A. Shleifer, and numerous seminar participants for helpful comments; G. Crowne, T. Harris, A. Kim, J. Sun, V. Weiss-Jung, and A. Zheng for excellent research assistance; A. Hiller and S. Oppenheimer for project management and content development; S. Halvorson, R. Korzan, C. Shram, and M. Wong of Darkhorse Analytics for creating the data visualization platform; S. Vadhan for help in developing the differential privacy methods used in this paper; and the Meta Research Team for their support. This research was facilitated through a research consulting agreement between Chetty, Jackson, Kuchler, and Stroebel and Meta Platforms, Inc. Jackson is an external faculty member of the Santa Fe Institute. The work was funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Overdeck Family Foundation, Harvard University, and the National Science Foundation (under grants SES-1629446 and SES-2018554 issued to Jackson in his academic capacity at Stanford). Opportunity Insights also receives core funding from other sponsors, including the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, and the Yagan Family Foundation. CZI is a separate entity from Meta, and CZI funding to Opportunity Insights was not used for this research. The findings and conclusions contained within are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect positions or policies of the funders. In 2018, T.K. and J.S. received an unrestricted gift from Facebook to NYU Stern. T. Kuchler, J. Stroebel, S. Gong, and F. Mudekereza. are contract affiliates through Meta's contract with PRO Unlimited. F. Gonzalez, A. Grondin, M. Jacob, D. Johnston, M. Koenen, T. Rutter, N. Thor, W. Townsend, and R. Zhang are contract affiliates through Meta's contract with Harvard University. Meta Platforms, Inc. did not dispute or influence any findings or conclusions during their collaboration on this research. This work was produced under an agreement between Meta and Harvard University specifying that Harvard shall own all intellectual property rights, titles and interests (subject to the restrictions of any journal or publisher of the resulting publication(s)). The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.
Johannes Stroebel
In 2018, T.K. and J.S. received an unrestricted gift from Facebook to NYU Stern. Opportunity Insights receives core funding from the Chan Zuckerberg Foundation (CZI). CZI is a separate entity from Meta, and CZI funding to Opportunity Insights was not used for this research. M.B, P.B., M.B., and N.W. are employees of Meta Platforms, Inc. T.K., J.S., S.G., and F.M. are contract affiliates through Meta’s contract with PRO Unlimited. F.G., A.G., M.J., D. J., M.K., T.R., N.T, W.T., and R.Z. are contract affiliates through Meta’s contract with Harvard University. Meta Platforms, Inc. did not dispute or influence any findings or conclusions during their collaboration on this research. This work was produced under an agreement between Meta and Harvard University specifying that Harvard shall own all intellectual property rights, titles and interests (subject to the restrictions of any journal or publisher of the resulting publication(s))
Mike Bailey
M. Bailey, P. Barbera, M. Bhole, and N. Wernerfelt are full-time employees at Meta.
Pablo Barberá
M. Bailey, P. Barbera, M. Bhole, and N. Wernerfelt are full-time employees at Meta.